Democracy in Danger: How Populism and Far-Right Extremism Are Shaping the Future.

"In the age of populism, democracy is not merely a system of governance; it becomes a battleground for the soul of society."

Populism, as a political phenomenon, is deeply rooted in various ontological dimensions that shape its emergence and evolution.

Understanding these roots is essential for grasping how populist movements resonate with individuals and communities, often leading to significant political shifts.

The following key ontological roots are instrumental in shaping populist movements:

Economic Discontent: Economic instability and inequality serve as foundational elements for populist sentiments.

When populations experience stagnation or decline in their economic circumstances, they become more susceptible to populist narratives that promise to restore their status and address grievances against perceived elites who are blamed for their hardships.

This economic lens highlights the relationship between material conditions and political mobilization, suggesting that populism often thrives in contexts of economic distress and uncertainty.

Cultural Anxiety: Cultural factors play a pivotal role in the rise of populism.

As societies undergo rapid changes due to globalization, migration, and shifts in social values, segments of the population may feel threatened by these transformations.

Populist movements capitalize on this cultural anxiety by framing themselves as defenders of traditional values against perceived threats from outsiders or progressive ideologies.

This cultural narrative fosters a sense of belonging among supporters, reinforcing an "us versus them" mentality that is central to populist rhetoric.

Psychological Needs for Belonging: The psychological dimensions of populism reveal how individuals' needs for identity and belonging can drive support for populist leaders and movements.

Populism often appeals to collective identities that resonate with voters’ feelings of disenfranchisement or marginalization.

By invoking shared experiences and collective grievances, populist leaders create a strong emotional connection with their followers, fostering loyalty and mobilization around a common cause.

Charismatic Leadership: The role of charismatic leaders is another critical ontological root of populism.

These leaders often embody the aspirations and frustrations of the populace, positioning themselves as authentic representatives of "the people."

Their ability to articulate grievances and present simplistic solutions enhances their appeal, allowing them to galvanize support even in complex political landscapes.

This dynamic emphasizes the importance of personal agency within populist movements, where individual leaders can significantly influence collective action.

Narratives of Crisis: Populist movements often employ crisis narratives that frame societal issues as urgent threats requiring immediate action.

This narrative strategy not only mobilizes support but also legitimizes the populists' calls for radical change or disruption of established political norms.

By portraying themselves as saviors in times of crisis, populists can effectively support across diverse demographics who feel vulnerable or threatened by current socio-political conditions

The relationship between economic discontent and the rise of populism has been extensively analyzed within political science and economics, underscoring how economic instability and inequality serve as catalysts for populist movements.

Economic stagnation or decline impacts individuals' beliefs of their well-being, often leading to a sense of loss or grievance.

This can manifest as job losses, wage stagnation, or a perceived decline in social mobility, which erodes trust in traditional political and economic institutions.

The work of Piketty (2014) on capital in the twenty-first century proves how wealth concentration and the later lack of economic growth for the middle and lower classes can lead to significant social unrest.

Economic growth rates in many Western countries have been sluggish since the 2008 financial crisis.

For instance, from 2008 to 2018, Italy's GDP growth was only about 0.5% annually on average, significantly lower than the pre-crisis rate (OECD data).

This stagnation corresponds with a rise in support for populist parties.

Unemployment rates have been another indicator; in Greece, unemployment peaked at over 27% in 2013, correlating with the rise of SYRIZA, a left-wing populist party (Eurostat).

Economic discontent serves not only as a breeding ground for populist sentiments but also as a mobilizing force.

Populist narratives often promise a return to a mythical past prosperity or a radical restructuring of the economic system to favor "the people."

Research by Guiso et al. (2017) using individual-level data from Europe shows that voters in regions with higher unemployment rates or those that suffered more from austerity measures post-2008 were more likely to support populist parties.

A spatial regression discontinuity design study in Italy by Albanese et al. (2022) found that municipalities less exposed to EU structural funds, hence experiencing more economic hardship, showed a 9% higher support for populist parties in the 2013 election compared to similar but better-funded areas.

The World Uncertainty Index (WUI) has been linked to populist voting behavior, with data suggesting that higher WUI increases support for populist parties, particularly on the right-wing (Guriev and Papaioannou, 2020)

Italy gives a compelling example where economic discontent has been a significant driver for the rise of populism.

Post-2008 financial crisis, Italy experienced economic stagnation, high unemployment, and a palpable sense of inequality, especially in the south.

The Five Star Movement (M5S), initially led by Beppe Grillo, used this discontent by promising to upend traditional politics and address economic grievances.

Their platform included direct democracy, anti-corruption measures, and economic policies aimed at the working class, resonating with voters disillusioned by the economic status quo.

M5S's success in the 2018 Italian general election, where they became the largest single party, underscores how economic discontent can translate into significant political power for populist movements.

This dynamic suggests that addressing economic inequality and providing stability might mitigate some populist appeal, although it also underscores the need for political systems to be responsive to economic changes and public beliefs of fairness.